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Worryingly, far right parties are influential in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia & Switzerland.
THREAD summary of this article: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-polisci-042814-012441
THREAD summary of this article: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-polisci-042814-012441
Far right parties are either radical or extremist in their ideology. Radicalism calls for “root and branch” reform of the political & economic system but does not explicitly seek the elimination of all forms of democracy. In contrast, extremism is directly opposed to democracy.
Far-right parties often have incentives to hide their extremism to avoid legal repercussions.
Radical parties are inherently “anti-system,” & In Europe, this system is typically a combination of liberal democracy & capitalism.
Radicalism & extremism occur on the left & right.
Radical parties are inherently “anti-system,” & In Europe, this system is typically a combination of liberal democracy & capitalism.
Radicalism & extremism occur on the left & right.
Left-wing variants oppose the capitalist system because it produces artificial levels of inequality. They seek a redistribution of power to alleviate inequality, espouse collective economic & social rights, & adopt an egalitarian, universalist, & often internationalist agenda.
In contrast, right-wing variants view inequality as part of the 'natural order'. Far right parties desire authoritarian systems, strictly ordered according to the “natural” differences that exist in society, as well as a law-&-order system that severely punishes deviant behavior.
Populism is central to the ideological appeal of many far right parties. Populism views society as divided into two homogeneous & antagonistic groups, “the pure people” & “the corrupt elite,” & argues that politics should reflect the general 'will of the people'.
Unlike elitism, populism considers the people to be the morally superior group & rejects the idea of meaningful divisions within “the people”, thus denying the need to compromise, simplifying political issues & dichotomizing them into black & white & calling for yes or no answers
According to populism, the elite is a parasitical class that enriches itself and systematically ignores the people's grievances. The immoral values of this elite stand in stark contrast to the wisdom and common sense of the people.
Populism's optimistic view of majority rule puts it at odds with liberal democracy, which requires the will of the majority to be constrained by constitutional checks & balances that protect minorities & individual rights.
Populism involves activating the people's resentment toward the existing power structure & dominant values in society. In Europe, the elite typically includes the established political parties, intellectuals, the economic upper class, and the media.
These groups are targeted for promoting liberal values related to individualism, multiculturalism, and internationalism, and for colluding to keep the people away from power. These groups are considered responsible for all of society's ills.
Populism can be inclusionary or exclusionary when it comes to imagining the people. Inclusionary populism, common among left-wing parties in Latin America, calls for material benefits & political rights to be extended to historically disadvantaged & excluded groups.
Exclusionary populism seeks to exclude certain groups from “the people” & thus limit their access to these same benefits & rights. Exclusionary populism is primarily associated with right-wing parties. The criteria for exclusion are almost always cultural, religious, &/or ethnic.
Nationalism is a common ideological feature on the far right.
Nationalism demands congruence between state & nation.
There are different varieties of nationalism.
Nationalism demands congruence between state & nation.
There are different varieties of nationalism.
Civic nationalism means the state is the primary unit of human organization, and individuals “choose” to be members of the civic nation by accepting a common set of cultural values and practices. The nation is culturally homogeneous, but not necessarily ethnically homogeneous.
Ethnic nationalism means membership in the nation is hereditary & often includes a shared language or religion. Ethnic nationalism focuses on repatriation as the main means of obtaining a monocultural state. Civic nationalism is inclusionary, ethnic nationalism is exclusionary.
'Nativism' combines nationalism with xenophobia in that it calls for states to comprise only members of an imagined 'native group' & considers non-native elements to be fundamentally threatening to the monocultural nation-state.
Non-native elements are identified on the basis of cultural traits such as race, ethnicity, or religion, & can include minorities from within the native ethnic group, such as gay people. Most far right parties, at least in public, have adopted an ethnopluralist form of nativism.
Ethnopluralism is more palatable to voters as it considers different cultures to be equal, but distinct & thus incompatible. Proponents claim to celebrate cultural differences, arguing differences must be protected from things like mass migration & cultural imperialism.
The cultural mixing occurring in multicultural societies is considered a form of national genocide. The goal is an ethnic democracy - an ethnocracy - where priority is given to 'protecting' one's own people: a culturally diverse world composed of monocultural nation-states.
Far right parties are often conflated with fascist parties. However, only a small subset of far right parties are ideologically fascist.
Traditionally, fascism was viewed as a purely negative phenomenon, a kind of “anti-ideology”—anticommunist, anticapitalist, and antiliberal.
Traditionally, fascism was viewed as a purely negative phenomenon, a kind of “anti-ideology”—anticommunist, anticapitalist, and antiliberal.
Fascism's core ideology combines extremism, populism, & nationalism, calling for a national rebirth & the revolutionary overthrow of the liberal democratic order, which is seen as decadent, corrupt, & against the common man. The goal is a new system, Ă©lite, & type of human being!
Most radical right parties desire a “return” to a mythical, ethnically homogeneous & idealized version of the past.
Greece's Golden Dawn & Hungary's Jobbik, with their youth movements & paramilitary organizations, rekindled concern about electoral forms of fascism.
Greece's Golden Dawn & Hungary's Jobbik, with their youth movements & paramilitary organizations, rekindled concern about electoral forms of fascism.
Explanations for the electoral success of far right parties focus on demand-side & supply-side factors.
Demand-side arguments emphasize the grievances that make far right parties appealing, including modernization grievances, economic grievances, & cultural grievances.
Demand-side arguments emphasize the grievances that make far right parties appealing, including modernization grievances, economic grievances, & cultural grievances.
Modernization grievances suggest there is a small amount of latent support for far right values which can be politicized & mobilized during moments of crisis that are related to the modernization process: individuals unable to cope with big societal changes turn to the far right.
Some argue that a shift from “materialist” values to “post-materialist” values which prioritize individual freedom & emphasize things such as multiculturalism, gender & racial equality, & sexual freedom, has created a reactionary backlash among 'traditionalists'.
Concerning economic grievances, in times of economic scarcity, social groups with conflicting material interests compete over limited resources: members of the ingroup blame the outgroup for economic problems, engendering prejudice & discrimination.
Far right parties exploit these economic grievances by linking immigrants & minorities to economic hardship.
Given the characteristics of the typical far right voter (often under-educated, unemployed male) evidence supports the economic grievance story at the individual level.
Given the characteristics of the typical far right voter (often under-educated, unemployed male) evidence supports the economic grievance story at the individual level.
Individuals likely to find himself competing with immigrants in the economic sphere are associated with holding stronger anti-immigrant attitudes, which are in turn, strongly linked with far right support.
The type of immigrant entering countries can be significant: noneconomic migrants, who arrive on the basis of political asylum or family reunification, are much more likely to put stress on local economies than economic migrants.
Economic scarcity creates greater incentives for the native population to support far right parties in statist economies where local authorities have control over the allocation of social services, housing, & employment than in market economies.
Cultural grievances accounting for far right success mobilise social identity theory: the idea that individuals have a natural tendency to associate with similar individuals, & an inherent desire for self-esteem causes people to perceive their ingroup as superior to outgroups.
Far right parties are able to exploit & encourage these natural tendencies by highlighting the (alleged) incompatibility of immigrant behavioral norms & cultural values with those of the native population.
Far right parties *always* mobilize grievances over immigration.
Far right parties *always* mobilize grievances over immigration.
But anti-immigrant attitudes do not automatically translate into anti-immigrant behavior. Many Europeans hold anti-immigrant attitudes, & yet relatively few vote for far right parties, possibly due to a widespread norm against prejudice & discrimination.
Evidence linking the size of immigrant groups to support for far-right parties is patchy: some studies find larger immigrant communities increase far right support, others find that the size of immigrant community has no effect. The press may play a part in perception management.
