Chapter 2: Rigvedic Education

This chapter will discuss the concept of learning as described in the Rigveda.

Image of 19th Century manuscript of Rigveda.

The Rigveda as the Source of Hindu Civilization

The Rigveda is established as the earliest work of Hindu civilization.

Some scholars in fact, have stated that Rigveda is the oldest ever document of humanity.

Max Mueller in his book ' Origin & Development of Religion has stated:

" One thing is certain, there is nothing more ancient than the hymns of Rigveda, whether in India or in the whole world."

Rudolph Steiner in his lectures on Vedas has stated:
" What we read in the Vedas gives us a faint idea of the sublime doctrines of the ancient teachers. Only the clairvoyant directed upon the mysteries of past may reveal the wisdom which lies being these writings."

According to the view of Hindus, the Rigveda contains within itself the seeds & source of the entire course of Hindu thought through the ages has derived and flowed in so many streams.

It lays the foundation upon which Hindu civilization has been building up through the ages.

Broadly speaking, it is on the foundation of simple living & high thinking.

Therefore, though ancient Indians did not build monuments of the scale of Pyramid at Giza, they were not lacking in the art of making great monuments of intellectual and spiritual progress.

The highest art of living was not lacking. Some of the greatest prayers like that of Gayatri Mantra ( RV, iii, 63,10) is also found in Samveda and Yajurveda, dedicated to Goddess of learning, arts and music -- Goddess Saraswati.

These touch the highest point of knowledge and sustain human souls to this day, and a Hindu, however modernized, will not allow any alteration of these mantras, their accents, letters, syllables and words.

'Tapas' as the Method of Learning

The Rigveda Samihā - the form in which the Rigveda is accessible to us, reveals two stages and types of education and educational methods.

The matter of Rigveda, its hymns are the outcome of the pursuit of highest truth and its direct realization on the basis of ascetic austerities and concentrated contemplation called ' Tapas' ( Tapasya), which marks out the Rishi.

In Rigveda, x,109,4 - there is a mention of seven rishis absorbed in tapas ( tapase ye nisheduh) and of the power of tapas in raising the lowest to highest.

In RV x,154,2, there is a reference to tapas or tapasya of different kinds, such as:

1) austerities like 'krichchhra-chāndrāyana, whereby the ascetic becomes invincible ( anādrishya) ;

2) sacrifices, whereby he attains heaven ; and

3) Penances of highest order called ' mahat'.

Image of an ascetic doing penance

The next verse describes the ' munis' as living in divine ecstasy or supreme bliss ( unmaditāh) due to renunciation of world with their souls detached from the bodies, & they live in a state of 'samadhi' - living in spirit & not in body.

Image of Naga Sadhus

They are also described as assuming the subtle body resembling the wind ( vātān a tasthima).

RV I, 55,4 refers to rishis dwelling in forests ( vane) in contemplation of God.

There is a reference to ' Sanyāsa' in RV viii, 24,26. The Rishi of x,117 is named ' Bhikshu' and the whole Sukta is in praise of charity and gifts to one who begs in need.

RV X, 190 talks about the concept of ' Rita' and ' Satya' -- truth of thought and speech as the fruit of Tapas and the whole creation resulting from the tapas of Brahma.

Besides Rishi and Muni, other terms indicative of highest spiritual advancement are ' vipra' , ' vedhas' and kavi.

In RV I, 164,45 there is a reference to Rishi called ' Manishis', who comprehend ' vakya' or speech in all its four forms.

Of the four forms of vākya, three are stated to be hidden in ' guhā', I.e in the depths of the soul, while the fourth is a manifest as speech of man or laukiki-bhāsā.

The philosophical position is thus, that what is rendered explicit in creation is only a fragment of God.

A similar idea is contained in the 41st verse describing' sabda' as Brahma unfolding gradually as ' Ekapadi, Dvipadi, Chatuspadi, Ashtpadi, Navapadi and ultimately pervading the universe as 'saharsāksra'.

Only a part of this sabda is captured by man for use as his language.

Method of Learning according to Capacity:

When highest knowledge was thus built up by the Rishis , revealed & stored in hymns, there was a necessity by which the knowledge acquired could be conserved and transmitted to future generations.

Thus, every Rishi was a teacher who would start by imparting to his son the texts of knowledge which he had personally acquired and such texts would be the sole property of his family.

Each such families of Rishis was thus, functioning like a Vedic school, admitting students for instructions in it's possessions.

The responsibility of a teacher and students are well established in the Rigveda. Methods of learning depended upon student's capacity to learn.

RV ( X, 71,7) points out : " class mates ( sakhas) or who have studied the same sāstras ( Samāneshu sāstreshu kritasramāh), may have equality in the possession of their senses like the eye & ear, but betray inequality in respect of their power of mind or wisdom."

It further states: " Some are like deep water tanks ( unfathomable), others up to breast only.

Some are fit for bath, others are to be seen only."

Thus, it compares each & every student, who may be friends to each other but differ in their capacity to learn & contemplate.

Recitation of Texts:

The subject of learning being hymns, the first step was to impart the sacred texts to the learners by recitation.

The air must be resounding with recitation of hymns in vedic schools. It was such a familiar phenomenon that it has inspired a hymn in Rigveda.

Rigveda (VII, 103) compares the recitation of words by the teacher & his students ( yadeshā manyo anyasya vācham sāktasyeva), to the croaking of frogs excited by the approach of rain.

Everyday the student started recitation of vedic text " before birds announced break of day" ( purā- vayabhyah pakshyādunām vagvadañrambhāt prāk).

The 'Aitreya Aranyaha' ( VIII) mentions three ways of reciting the Rigveda:

a) 'pratrinna' ;
b) nirbhuja ; and
c) 'ubhayamantarena'

i.e by taking the words singly, or in pairs or in continuous way.

Evolution of Alphabets

Rigvedic education primarily comprised of the transmission of the sacred texts by teacher to student by means of regulated recitation & prescribed pronunciation which the student has to listen to and commit to memory.

Sāyana ( Introduction to Rigveda) quotes that : " the text of the Veda is to be learnt by the method of learning it from the lips of the teacher & not from manuscript. "

The Sruti or Veda should appeal more to the ear than to the eye.

Because this education was primarily a matter of hearing & memorizing by repetition of its texts in a manner of ' croaking of frogs', it has been assumed that listening & memorizing the texts were considered a priority, rather than writing.

Kumārila ( Tantra Vārttika, i, 3 ) states: " The knowledge gained from Veda is worthless if it has not been rightly comprehended or if it has been learnt from writing."

Mahabharata condemns to hell those who write the Veda ( vedānām lekhakāh).

But even if such learning, passed from ear to ear in an oral tradition & banned the method of its transmission through writing, it does not follow that the system of writing or alphabets wasn't followed.

Rigveda shows definite reference to the word ' Akshara'. The verses VI, 53, 5-8) uses metaphors which can suggest by the practice of writing.

In the first two, there is mentioned an instrument of writing called ' ara' or goad.

Again in the verse X, 71,4 refers to both the methods of learning by seeing or hearing ( Utatvahpasyanna dadrasa vācham uta tvahsrinvanna srinotienām).

Again a 'yajus' is defined to be " that in which the number of letters is not fixed" by any metre ( aniyata - aksharāvasāho yajuh).

The evolution of alphabets, may therefore, be assumed as aid to learning in a time which had paid more attention to oral tradition of learning.

Efficiency of Recitation

The first step in the Rigvedic education was the correct recitation of the texts taught

Jamini in his Pūrva-Mimānsā (i,2,32) has said about ' Vākyani-yamāt', means that words of mantras should be recited in prescribed manner to achieve its full fruit.

Mere recitation of texts in the prescribed manner has spiritual efficacy of its own:

' Niyatapāthakramsā-phalayāya ucchhāranameva mantraprayojananam'.

A spiritual benefit flows from the observance of the strict order of the words of the texts recited.

This tradition of independent efficacy of mere words and correct recitation of the Vedic text has found expression in the extreme position state.

In ' Panini- Sikshā' ( V, 52) it is stated that the slightest lapse in uttering a letter or word of the vedic mantra on the part of a teacher will spell utter disaster to him.

Importance to Understanding Texts:

Rigvedic education was not merely confined to learning or remembering the words of sacred texts.

The contemplation & comprehension of their meaning was considered more important & vital to education than recitation & pronunciation.

The Rigveda has several significant passages condemning & ridiculing those whose knowledge is confined only to repetition of words without an insight into their inner meaning by constant & concentrated contemplation.

RV ( VII, 103, I) refers to a period of such contemplation in silence, during which Brāhmanas achieve enlightenment.

Then they burst out into speech ( Vācham avādishuh) like frogs quickened into activity by clouds ( parjanya) after a slumber.

It is enlightenment which fits the student called ( Brahmana Vratachārinah) explained by Yāska ( Nirkula, IX, 6) as ' abruvānāh', i.e maintaining a vow of silence for the task of expounding the sacred text.

Seats of Learning:

There are no evidences to point out any particular seat of learning in Rigvedic India.

The only evidence, however, is the general way - the geographical limits under which the Rishis lived and moved composing or revealing the hymns.

Rigveda India is marked out by its rivers and some 25 of them have been mentioned in the Rigveda.

To the west of Sindhu ( Indus) are the rivers Kubhā ( Kabul river), Suvāstu ( Swat river), Krumu ( Kurram) & Gomati ( Gommal).

RV ( X, 75,6; V, 53,9; VIII 24,30, 19,17).

Sindhu ( Indus) is mentioned many times ( RV, I, 126,I ; 94,16, 122,6).

Images of the rivers, Kabul, Swat, Kuram and Gommal, respectively.

There are also mentioned the 5 rivers of Punjab :

Vitastā ( Jhelum), Asikni ( Chenab), Parushni ( Raavi ), Vipāsa ( Beas), & Sutudri ( Satluj).

RV X, 75,5, VIII 18,89, III 33,1.

Images of Chenab, Raavi, Beas & Satluj respectively.

Ganga is mentioned as Gañgya ( RV, VI 45,31), Yamuna in V 52,17 & VII 18,9.

One hymn ( RV, IV 36,18) also mentions Sarayu river ( near Ayodhya).

Image of Sarayu river.

Saraswati is also mentioned ( RV, III 23,4).

It will appear that Sindhu & Saraswati are mentioned most in the Rigvedic hymns, confirming that the river Saraswati which is extinct now, flowed during Rigvedic times.

Image of Mansarovar lake, from where Indus originates.

F.E. Pargiter has asserted that Rigvedic learning originated in Ganges valley on the assertion that the rivers mentioned in Nādi- stuti, नदिस्तुति सूक्त ( RV 10.75, 1,2,7,8,9) are from east to west, beginning with Ganga , Yamuna & Saraswati.

Kshatriyas as Rishis:

What is known as 'caste-system' is known to Rigveda, but it is not in it in all the rigidity and elaboration marking it in later times.

Though it Rishis were Brahmins, it is not exclusively so.

Supreme knowledge was not just confined to a particular varna and did not go by birth but by inner worth achieved by tapas.

Rigveda Samhitā preserves the names of several Rishis who were Kings or Kshatriyas.

RV. I, 100 in its 17th verse mentions five kings as Rishis of which Ambrisha is also the Rishi of IX, 9.

Trasadasyu is the royal Rishi of IV, 42 & also V, 27, along with Tryaruna and Ashvameda.

Purumilha & Ajamila are the royal Rishis of IV, 4 and 44.

RV. VI, 15 has Vithahavya as its Rishi king ; X,9 has Sindhudvipa - son of Ambrisha.

RV. IX, 75 has Sindushakti, X,133 has the famous king Sudās, X, 134 has Mandhātā, X, 179 has Sibi and X, 148 has Prithi Variya as royal Rishis.

Women as Rishis:

Women were admitted to full religious rights & consequently to complete educational facilities.

The wife was a regular participant in the sacrificial offerings of the husband ( RV. I, 122,2, 131,3).

Women sages were called Rishikās or Brahma - Vādinis.

Rigveda knows of the names of these Rishikās.

Romasā ( RV. U, 126,7), Lopamudra ( I,179, 1-6), Apāla ( VIII, 91, 1-7), Kadrū ( II, 6,8), Visvavārā ( V, 28,3).

Lopamudra was the wife of Sage Agastya & famous for spreading the fame of 'Lalita-Sahastranaam'.

Image of Lopamudra

In the tenth mandala of Rigveda, several other Rishikās are mentioned.

Ghosā, Juhū, Vagāmbhrini, Paulomi, Jaritā, Sraddhā - kāmāyani, Urvasi, Sārānga, Yami, Indrani, Savitri, Devjāmi.

The Rishikās/ Brahma - Vadinis were the product of Brahmacharya for which women were also eligible.

RV. V, 7,9 refers to young maidens completing their education as Brahmacharis & then gaining husbands in whom they merge like rivers in oceans.

RV. III, 55,16 mentions unmarried learned & young daughters who should be married to learned bridegrooms.

Yajurveda ( VIII, I) states that a daughter who has completed her education should be married to one who is learned like her.

Atharveda ( XI, 6) also refers to maidens qualifying by her brahmacharya - for married life. ( brahmacharyena kanyā yuvānam vindate patim)

Lastly, Yajurveda ( XXVI, 2) has a most interesting passage which entitles the imparting of Vedic knowledge to all classes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras, etc.

यथेमां वाचं कल्याणीमावदानि जनेभ्यःब्रह्मराजन्याभ्यां शूद्राय चार्याय च स्वाय चारणाय॥

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